STROKE
A stroke occurs when an artery to the brain becomes blocked or ruptures, resulting in death of an area of brain tissue (cerebral infarction) and causing sudden symptoms.
A stroke is called a cerebrovascular disorder because it affects the brain (cerebro-) and the blood vessels (vascular).
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In Western countries, strokes are the third most common cause of death and the most common cause of disabling neurologic damage. In the United States, over 600,000 people have a stroke and about 160,000 die of stroke each year. Strokes are much more common among older people than among younger adults, usually because the disorders that lead to strokes progress over time. Over two thirds of all strokes occur in people older than 65. Slightly more than 50% of all strokes occur in men, but more than 60% of deaths due to stroke occur in women, possibly because women are on average older when the stroke occurs. Blacks are more likely than whites to have a stroke and to die of it.
Types: There are two types of strokes: ischemic and hemorrhagic. About 80% of strokes are ischemic—usually due to a blocked artery, often blocked by a blood clot. Brain cells, thus deprived of their blood supply, do not receive enough oxygen and glucose (a sugar), which are carried by blood. The damage that results depends on how long brain cells are deprived of blood. If they are deprived for only a brief time, brain cells are stressed, but they may recover. If brain cells are deprived longer (but possibly for only several minutes), brain cells die, and some functions may be lost. However, in such cases, a different area of the brain can sometimes learn how to do the functions previously done by the damaged area.
Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs), sometimes called ministrokes, are often an early warning sign of an impending ischemic stroke. They are caused by a brief interruption of the blood supply to part of the brain. Because the blood supply is restored quickly, brain tissue may not die, as it does in a stroke.
The other 20% of strokes are hemorrhagic—due to bleeding in or around the brain. In this type of stroke, a blood vessel ruptures, interfering with normal blood flow and allowing blood to leak into brain tissue. Blood that comes into direct contact with brain tissue irritates the tissue and can cause scarring, leading to seizures.
Risk Factors: The major risk factors for both types of stroke are
Atherosclerosis is a more important risk factor for ischemic stroke, and high blood pressure is a more important risk factor for hemorrhagic stroke. These risk factors can be controlled to some extent.
Other risk factors include
For hemorrhagic stroke, risk factors also include using anticoagulants, having a bulge (aneurysm) in arteries within the skull, and having an abnormal connection between arteries and veins (arteriovenous malformation).
The incidence of strokes has declined in recent decades, mainly because people are more aware of the importance of controlling high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels and stopping cigarette smoking. Controlling these factors reduces the risk of atherosclerosis.
Symptoms
Symptoms of a stroke or transient ischemic attack occur suddenly. They vary depending on the precise location of the blockage or bleeding in the brain (Brain Dysfunction: Dysfunction by Location and Brain Dysfunction: When Specific Areas of the Brain Are Damaged). Each area of the brain is supplied by specific arteries. For example, if an artery supplying the area of the brain that controls the left leg's muscle movements is blocked, the leg becomes weak or paralyzed. If the area of the brain that senses touch in the right arm is damaged, sensation in the right arm is lost.
Because early treatment can help limit loss of function and sensation, everyone should know what the early symptoms of stroke are. People who have any of these symptoms should see a doctor immediately, even if the symptom goes away quickly.
Most strokes, whether ischemic or hemorrhagic, typically cause one or more of the following symptoms:
Symptoms of a transient ischemic attack are the same, but they usually disappear within minutes and rarely last more than 1 hour.
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Symptoms of a hemorrhagic stroke may also include the following:
Other symptoms that may occur early include problems with memory, thinking, attention, or learning. People may be unable to recognize parts of the body and may be unaware of the stroke's effects. The peripheral field of vision may be reduced, and hearing may be partially lost. Dizziness and vertigo may develop or persist. Control of bowel or bladder function may be lost.
Later symptoms may include stiffening and spasms of the muscles (spasticity) and inability to control emotions. A stroke can cause depression, or people may feel depressed because of the stroke.
In most people who have had an ischemic stroke, loss of function is usually greatest immediately after the stroke occurs. However, in about 15 to 20%, the stroke is progressive, causing greatest loss of function after a day or two. In people who have had a hemorrhagic stroke, function usually is lost progressively over minutes to hours.
Over days to months, some function is usually regained because even though some brain cells die, others are only stressed and may recover. Also, certain areas of the brain can sometimes switch to the functions previously done by the damaged part—a characteristic called plasticity. However, the early effects of a stroke, including paralysis, can become permanent. Muscles that are not used usually become permanently spastic and stiff, and painful muscle spasms may occur. Walking, swallowing, physically saying words clearly, and doing daily activities may remain difficult. Various problems with memory, thinking, attention, learning, or controlling emotions may persist. Depression, impairments in hearing or vision, or vertigo may be continuing problems. Control of bowel or bladder function may be permanently impaired.
Complications: When a stroke is severe, the brain swells, increasing pressure within the skull. Increased pressure can damage the brain directly or indirectly by forcing the brain downward in the skull. The brain may be forced through the rigid structures that separate the brain into compartments, resulting in a serious problem called herniation. The pressure affects the respiratory center in the lower part of the brain stem and can cause irregular breathing, loss of consciousness, coma, and death.
The symptoms caused by a stroke can lead to other problems. If swallowing is difficult, people may inhale food, fluids, or other particles from the mouth. Such inhalation (called aspiration) can cause aspiration pneumonia, which may be serious. Difficulty swallowing can also interfere with eating, resulting in undernutrition and dehydration. Not being able to move can result in pressure sores, muscle loss, and the formation of blood clots in deep veins of the legs and groin (deep vein thrombosis). Clots can break off, travel through the bloodstream, and block an artery to a lung (pulmonary embolism). If bladder control is impaired, urinary tract infections are more likely to develop.
Diagnosis
Symptoms suggest the diagnosis, but tests are needed to help doctors determine the following:
Computed tomography (CT–see Common Imaging Tests: Computed Tomography) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI–see Common Imaging Tests: Magnetic Resonance Imaging) of the brain is done. These tests can detect most hemorrhagic strokes, except for some subarachnoid hemorrhages. These tests can also detect many ischemic strokes but sometimes not until several hours after symptoms appear. The blood sugar level is measured immediately because a low blood sugar level (hypoglycemia) can cause symptoms similar to those of stroke.
Doctors evaluate people who have had a stroke for problems that can contribute to or cause a stroke, such as infection, a low blood oxygen level, and dehydration, Tests are done as needed. People are asked about depression. The ability to swallow is evaluated, sometimes with x-rays taken after a radiopaque dye such as barium is swallowed. Depending on the type of stroke, more tests are done to identify the cause.
Prognosis
Certain factors suggest that the outcome of a stroke is likely to be poor. Strokes that cause unconsciousness or that affect a large part of the left side of the brain (which is responsible for language) may be particularly grave.
In adults who have had an ischemic stroke, problems that remain after 6 months are likely to be permanent, but children continue to improve slowly for many months. Older people fare less well than younger people. For people who already have other serious disorders (such as dementia), recovery is more limited.
If a hemorrhagic stroke is not massive and pressure within the brain is not very high, the outcome is likely to be better after than that after an ischemic stroke. Blood (in a hemorrhagic stroke) does not damage brain tissue as much as an inadequate supply of oxygen (in an ischemic stroke) does.
Prevention
Preventing strokes is preferable to treating them. The main strategy for preventing a first stroke is managing the major risk factors. High blood pressure (see High Blood Pressure) and diabetes (see Diabetes Mellitus (DM): Diabetes Mellitus)should be controlled. Cholesterol levels should be measured and, if high, lowered to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis (see Cholesterol Disorders: Treatment). Smoking and use of amphetamines or cocaine should be stopped, and alcohol should be limited to no more than 2 drinks a day. Exercising regularly and, if overweight, losing weight help people control high blood pressure, diabetes, and high cholesterol levels. Having regular checkups enables a doctor to identify risk factors for stroke so that they can be managed quickly.
If people have had an ischemic stroke, taking an antiplatelet drug can reduce the risk of another ischemic stroke. Antiplatelet drugs make platelets less likely to clump and form clots, a common cause of ischemic stroke. (Platelets are tiny cell-like particles in blood that help it clot in response to damaged blood vessels.) Aspirin , one of the most effective antiplatelet drugs, is usually prescribed. One adult's tablet or 1 children's tablet (which is about one fourth the dose of an adult aspirin Some Trade Names
ECOTRIN
ASPERGUM
) is taken each day. Either dose seems to prevent strokes about equally well. Taking a combination tablet that contains a low dose of aspirin Some Trade Names
ECOTRIN
ASPERGUM
and dipyridamole Some Trade Names
PERSANTINE
(an antiplatelet drug) is slightly more effective than taking aspirin Some Trade Names
ECOTRIN
ASPERGUM
alone. Clopidogrel Some Trade Names
PLAVIX
, another antiplatelet drug, is also slightly more effective than aspirin Some Trade Names
ECOTRIN
ASPERGUM
alone. It may be given to people who cannot tolerate aspirin Some Trade Names
ECOTRIN
ASPERGUM
. Some people are allergic to antiplatelet drugs or similar drugs and cannot take them. Also, people who have gastrointestinal bleeding should not take antiplatelet drugs.
If an ischemic stroke or a transient ischemic attack is due to blood clots originating in the heart, warfarin Some Trade Names
COUMADIN
, an anticoagulant, may be given to inhibit blood clotting. Because taking warfarin Some Trade Names
COUMADIN
and an antiplatelet drug or taking aspirin Some Trade Names
ECOTRIN
ASPERGUM
plus clopidogrel Some Trade Names
PLAVIX
greatly increases the risk of bleeding, these drugs are rarely used together for stroke prevention.
Treatment
Anyone with symptoms of a stroke should seek medical attention immediately.
Doctors check the person's vital functions, such as heart rate, breathing, temperature, and blood pressure, to make sure they are adequate. If they are not, measures to correct them are taken immediately. For example, if people are in a coma or unresponsive (as may result from brain herniation), mechanical ventilation (with a breathing tube inserted through the mouth or nose) may be needed to help them breathe. If symptoms suggest that pressure within the skull is high, drugs may be given to reduce swelling in the brain, and a monitor may be put in the brain to periodically measure the pressure.
Other treatments used during the first hours depend on the type of stroke. These treatments include drugs (such as antiplatelet drugs, anticoagulants, drugs to break up clots, and drugs to control high blood pressure) and surgery to remove blood that has accumulated.
Later and ongoing treatments focus on preventing subsequent strokes, treating and preventing problems that strokes can cause, and helping people regain as much function as possible (rehabilitation).
Rehabilitation: Intensive rehabilitation can help many people overcome disabilities after a stroke (see Rehabilitation: Brain Injuries). The exercises and training of rehabilitation encourage unaffected areas of the brain to learn to perform functions that were done by the damaged area. Also, people are taught new ways to use muscles unaffected by the stroke to compensate for losses in function.
The goals of rehabilitation are the following:
To regain as much normal function as possible To maintain and improve physical condition To help people relearn old skills and learn new ones as needed Success depends on the area of the brain damaged and the person's general physical condition, functional and cognitive abilities before the stroke, social situation, learning ability, and attitude. Patience and perseverance are crucial. Participating actively in the rehabilitation program can help people avoid or lessen depression. Rehabilitation is started in the hospital as soon as people are physically able—usually within 1 or 2 days of admission. After discharge from the hospital, rehabilitation can be continued on an outpatient basis, in a nursing home, in a rehabilitation center, or at home. Occupational and physical therapists can suggest ways to make life easier and the home safer for people with disabilities. Family members and friends can contribute to a person's rehabilitation by keeping in mind what effects a stroke can have, so that they can better understand and support the person. Support groups can provide emotional encouragement and practical advice for people who have had a stroke and for those who care for them. End-of-Life Issues For some people who have had a stroke, quality of life is predicted to remain very poor despite treatment. For such people, care focuses on control of pain, comfort measures, and provision of fluids and nourishment. People who have had a stroke should establish advance directives (see Legal and Ethical Issues: Advance Directives) as soon as possible because the recurrence and progression of strokes are unpredictable. Advance directives can help a doctor determine what kind of medical care people want if they become unable to make these decisions. |
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